Rabu, 09 September 2009

kingdom

In biological taxonomy, kingdom and/or regnum is a taxonomic rank in either (historically) the highest rank, or (in the new three-domain system) the rank below domain. Each kingdom is divided into smaller groups called phyla (or in some contexts these are called "divisions"). Currently, many textbooks from the United States use a system of six kingdoms (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, Bacteria) while British and Australian textbooks may describe five kingdoms (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Prokaryota or Monera). The classifications of taxonomy are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.

Carolus Linnaeus distinguished two kingdoms of living things: Animalia for animals and Vegetabilia for plants (Linnaeus also included minerals, placing them in a third kingdom, Mineralia). Linnaeus divided each kingdom into classes, later grouped into phyla for animals and divisions for plants. It gradually became apparent how important the prokaryote/eukaryote distinction is, and Stanier and van Niel popularized Édouard Chatton's proposal in the 1960s.[1]

Contents

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[edit] Five kingdoms

Robert Whittaker recognized an additional kingdom for the Fungi. The resulting five-kingdom system, proposed in 1969, has become a popular standard and with some refinement is still used in many works, or forms the basis for newer multi-kingdom systems. It is based mainly on differences in nutrition; his Plantae were mostly multicellular autotrophs, his Animalia multicellular heterotrophs, and his Fungi multicellular saprotrophs. The remaining two kingdoms, Protista and Monera, included unicellular and simple cellular colonies.[2]

[edit] Six kingdoms

In the years around 1980, there was an emphasis on phylogeny and redefining the kingdoms to be monophyletic groups, groups made up of relatively closely related organisms. The Animalia, Plantae, and Fungi were generally reduced to core groups of closely related forms, and the others placed into the Protista. Based on RNA studies, Carl Woese divided the prokaryotes (Kingdom Monera) into two kingdoms, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. Carl Woese attempted to establish a Three Primary Kingdom (or Urkingdom) system in which Plants, Animals, Protista, and Fungi were lumped into one primary kingdom of all eukaryotes. The Eubacteria and Archaebacteria made up the other two urkingdoms. The initial use of "six Kingdom systems" represents a blending of the classic Five Kingdom system and Woese's Three Kingdom system. Such six Kingdom systems have become standard in many works.[3]

A variety of new eukaryotic kingdoms were also proposed, but most were quickly invalidated, ranked down to phyla or classes, or abandoned. The only one which is still in common use is the kingdom Chromista proposed by Cavalier-Smith, including organisms such as kelp, diatoms, and water moulds. Thus the eukaryotes are divided into three primarily heterotrophic groups, the Animalia, Fungi, and Protozoa, and two primarily photosynthetic groups, the Plantae (including red and green algae) and Chromista. However, it has not become widely used because of uncertainty over the monophyly of the latter two kingdoms.

Woese stresses genetic similarity over outward appearances and behaviour, relying on comparisons of ribosomal RNA genes at the molecular level to sort out classification categories. A plant does not look like an animal, but at the cellular level, both groups are eukaryotes, having similar subcellular organization, including cell nuclei, which the Eubacteria and Archaebacteria do not have. More importantly, plants, animals, fungi, and protists are more similar to each other in their genetic makeup at the molecular level, based on RNA studies, than they are to either the Eubacteria or Archaebacteria. Woese also found that all of the eukaryotes, lumped together as one group, are more closely related, genetically, to the Archaebacteria than they are to the Eubacteria. This means that the Eubacteria and Archaebacteria are separate groups even when compared to the eukaryotes. So, Woese established the Three-domain system, clarifying that all the Eukaryotes are more closely genetically related compared to their genetic relationship to either the bacteria or the archaebacteria, without having to replace the "six kingdom systems" with a three kingdom system. The Three Domain system is a "six kingdom system" that unites the eukaryotic kingdoms into the Eukarya Domain based on their relative genetic similarity when compared to the Bacteria Domain and the Archaea Domain. Woese also recognized that the Protista Kingdom is not a monophyletic group and might be further divided at the level of Kingdom. Others have divided the Protista Kingdom into the Protozoa and the Chromista, for instance.

[edit] Recent advances

Classification is an ongoing area of research and discussion. As new findings and technologies become available they allow the refinement of the model. For example, gene sequencing techniques allow the comparison of the genome of different groups (Phylogenomics). A study published in 2007 by Fabien Burki, et al.[4] proposes four high level groups of eukaryotes based on phylogenomics research.

  1. Plantae (green and red algae, and plants)
  2. Opisthokonts (amoebas, fungi, and animals)
  3. Excavata (free-living and parasitic protists)
  4. SAR (acronym for Stramenopiles, Alveolates, and Rhizaria–the names of some of its members. Burki found that the previously split groups Rhizaria and Chromalveolates were more similar in 123 common genes than once thought.)

Recent phylogenetic studies suggest there are anywhere from 18 to over 30 different kingdoms that have been discovered.

[edit] Summary

Linnaeus[5]
(1735)
2 kingdoms
Haeckel[6]
(1866)
3 kingdoms
Chatton[7]
(1925)
2 groups
Copeland[8]
(1938)
4 kingdoms
Whittaker[2]

(1969)
5 kingdoms

Woese [9][10]
(1977,1990)
3 domains
Animalia Animalia Eukaryote Animalia Animalia Eukarya
Vegetabilia Plantae Plantae Plantae
Protoctista Fungi
Protista
(not treated) Protista
Prokaryote Monera Monera Archaea
Bacteria

Note that the equivalences in this table are not perfect. e.g. Haeckell placed the red algae (Haeckell's Florideae; modern Florideophyceae) and blue-green algae (Haeckell's Archephyta; modern Cyanobacteria) in his Plantae.

In 1998, Cavalier-Smith[11] proposed that Protista should be divided into 2 new kingdoms: Chromista the phylogenetic group of golden-brown algae that includes those algae whose chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and c, as well as various colorless forms that are closely related to them, and Protozoa, the kingdom of protozoans[12]. This proposal has not been widely-adopted, although the question of the relationships between different domains of life remains controversial.[13]

Empires Kingdoms
Prokaryota Bacteria
Eukaryota Animalia Plantae Fungi Chromista Protozoa

[edit] References

  1. ^ R. Y. Stanier and C. B. van Niel (1962). "The concept of a bacterium". Arch. Microbiol. 42: 17–35.
  2. ^ a b Whittaker RH (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms". Science (journal) 163 (863): 150–60. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760.
  3. ^ Balch WE, Magrum LJ, Fox GE, Wolfe RS, Woese CR (August 1977). "An ancient divergence among the bacteria". J. Mol. Evol. 9 (4): 305–11. doi:10.1007/BF01796092. PMID 408502.
  4. ^ Burki F, Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge M, et al. (2007). "Phylogenomics reshuffles the eukaryotic supergroups". PLoS ONE 2 (8): e790. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000790. PMID 17726520.
  5. ^ C. Linnaeus (1735). Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species.
  6. ^ Haeckel (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Reimer, Berlin..
  7. ^ E. Chatton (1925). "Pansporella perplexa. Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires". Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool 10-VII: 1–84.
  8. ^ H. Copeland (1938). "The kingdoms of organisms". Quarterly review of biology 13: 383–420. doi:10.1086/394568.
  9. ^ Woese CR, Fox GE (November 1977). "Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: the primary kingdoms". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 74 (11): 5088–90. PMID 270744.
  10. ^ Woese CR, Kandler O, Wheelis ML (June 1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87 (12): 4576–9. PMID 2112744.
  11. ^ Cavalier-Smith T (August 1998). "A revised six-kingdom system of life". Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 73 (3): 203–66. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x. PMID 9809012.
  12. ^ T. Cavalier-Smith (2006). "Protozoa: the most abundant predators on earth". Microbiology Today (pdf here): 166–167.
  13. ^ Walsh DA, Doolittle WF (April 2005). "The real 'domains' of life". Curr. Biol. 15 (7): R237–40. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.03.034. PMID 15823519.

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

Selasa, 08 September 2009

novel ayat ayat cinta

Version translation in the Indonesian language will be published in hardcover and softcover versions, each at 13 and January 26, 2008. [1] Previously, the English version of Deathly Hallows, was launched simultaneously worldwide in 93 countries [2], on July 21, 2007, one minute after midnight (00:01), British Summer Time.

The title of this book was announced on December 21, 2006 through Rowling's website, and soon confirmed by the publisher. [3] Rowling has stated that this last series is closely related to the previous book, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, which he said "almost like two part of a novel ". [4] Rowling has left a signed statement, written on a marble bust at the Hotel Balmoral, Edinburgh, which states;

"JK Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room (652) on January 11, 2007." [5]

In its website on February 6, 2007, Rowling stated

"Although I love every previous Potter book, 'Deathly Hallows' is my favorite, and this is a very pleasant way to finish this series." [6]

This book is a best-selling title on Amazon and Barnes and Noble just a few hours after its release date was announced. [7]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Plot
o 1.1 Leaving the Dursleys
o 1.2 Search Horcrux
o 1.3 Deathly Hallows
o 1.4 Battle of Hogwarts
o 1.5 Epilogue
* 2 Comments and supplements from Rowling
* 3 Summary of the cover story
o British Edition 3.1
o 3.2 United States Edition
* 4 References
* 5 External links

[edit] Plot
Caution: The following sections will probably reveal important plot or the end of the story.

[edit] Leaving the Dursleys

Harry Potter entered the age of 17 years where he reached the age of adulthood in the wizarding world. Before the age of 17 years, Harry was protected from Voldemort during his stay at the Dursleys who have blood ties with him. By entering the age of maturity, it will spell lifted by itself and requires Harry to protect himself.

On information from Severus Snape, Lord Voldemort and his followers will find information about the lifting of this protection spells and plan to ambush Harry when he was leaving the Dursleys. Voldemort is also seeking a new wand that can overcome Harry's wand. Shortly before Harry's protection spell ends, secured to the Dursleys undisclosed location, and some members of the Order of the Phoenix arrive to escort Harry to a safe place. Six men posing as Harry, but Harry caught the original on the way and attacked by Voldemort and the Eaters of death. Harry managed to escape to the Weasley family home, the Burrow, but Hedwig and Mad-Eye Moody was killed in battle.

A few days later, the Minister of Magic Rufus Scrimgeour arrives at the Weasley residence and provide for their heritage Dumbledore: Deluminator to Ron (a tool like a match that could put / turn on the light); book on children's tale of magic for Hermione; and to Harry, sword Godric Gryffindor and captured the first Snitch Harry in his first Quidditch match. However, the sword of Gryffindor was arrested by the Minister of Magic, because the ministry argued that the sword was not Dumbledore's. Later, the Snitch had appeared a guide written by Dumbledore: "I opened the cover of" (English: "I open at the close"). Although all three have not been able to know why Dumbledore left their respective objects, they believe that things were somehow meant to help them find [Horcrux, Horcrux] Voldemort.

[edit] Searching Horcrux

In the wedding reception Bill Weasley and Fleur Delacour, of Kingsley Shacklebolt's Patronus comes with a warning that the Ministry of Magic has fallen and the Death Eaters were coming toward them. Harry, Ron, and Hermione escape with berdisapparate, and finally took refuge in the headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix who had been abandoned at Grimmauld Place number twelve, Harry inherited the house from Sirius Black. In this house, Harry found that Sirius's brother, Regulus was killed by Voldemort, has a name Regulus Arcturus Black is the same as the initials "RAB" namely those who took Salazar Slytherin's locket Horcrux from the cave hidden seaside. [HP6] Hermione recalls seeing a locket amongst the belongings of Kreacher, the house elf in the place. Kreacher referring to admit Mundungus Fletcher had stolen the locket from the house elf and use it to bribe Dolores Umbridge. Convinced that one of the locket Horcrux that they were looking for, all three entered the Ministry of Magic Potion Polijus using pseudonyms. They managed to take the locket from Umbridge's neck without realizing it, but their hiding places in Grimmauld Place had known enemies.

The three friends ran off. They did not succeed to open let alone destroy the locket, and took turns wearing the locket to keep it. They also found out that the sword "Dumbledore heritage" held by the ministry of truth is the sword clone; and that the sword of Gryffindor is aslilah that can destroy the Horcrux, Horcrux. Harry tries to find the sword, but Ron, who worried about the security and the family was disappointed that Harry did not have any plan of Dumbledore, leaving Harry and Hermione. Both then went to Godric's Hollow to find that sword. There, they were ambushed by Voldemort and Nagini. When they managed to escape, Hermione accidentally breaks Harry's wand.

In Forest Dean, Harry sees a Patronus in the shape of the female deer near where they camped. Patronus that led him to a pool of ice containing the sword of Gryffindor. When Harry tried to dive into the pond ice to retrieve the sword, the locket Horcrux was wearing a sudden tightening and trying to wring its neck. Ron, who uses Deluminator to find Harry and Hermione, arrived and managed to save Harry from drowning in the pool, took the sword, and then managed to destroy the locket. Ron and Hermione warns Harry that Voldemort's name has now become dimanterai Tabu - so those who dare mention that name will cause the hiding place would be revealed ..

[edit] Deathly Hallows
Symbol of the Deathly Hallows (the Deathly Halows)

Leave visiting three friends Xenophilius Lovegood, Luna's father, to ask about the symbols they had seen and Xenophilius used by the same symbol with a symbol in the book of children's Hermione. Lovegood said that the symbol is the symbol of the Deathly Hallows (the Deathly Hallows), three legendary objects that conquer death: the Elder wand (the Elder Wand), the Stone of Resurrection (Resurrection Stone), and the Invisibility Cloak. When pressed about the existence of Luna, Lovegood admits that Death Eaters have kidnapped his daughter and that he had informed the Ministry of Magic (which has been controlled by the Death Eaters) about the existence of all three, but they managed to escape.

Some treasure hunters to catch all three in their camp after wantonly Harry Voldemort's name. They were imprisoned in the Malfoy family's house, along with Luna Lovegood, Dean Thomas, Ollivander the wand maker, and goblins Griphook. When he found the sword of Gryffindor among their possessions, Bellatrix Lestrange suspects that they had stolen into his storage Gringott Bank. Hermione Bellatrix tortured for information. Dobby berapparate to the dungeon where they were all locked and saved them. Petter Pettigrew down to the basement to investigate the noise and strangle Harry, who warned that Pettigrew's life debt to him. [HP3] Pettigrew's grip weakened, despite his silver hand and strangling to death his own master in return for debt that's life. Harry and Ron ran up the stairs to save Hermione. Ron disarm while Harry defeat Bellatrix and Draco took the wand. Dobby came back and the four berapparate to the house of Bill and Fleur Weasley. Shortly before they disappeared, Bellatrix throws a knife and fatally penetrate the body Dobby.

At the residence of Bill, Ollivander would justify the existence of Elder's cane. He also revealed that a magic wand can choose to switch to a new host if the owner was defeated or disarmed. Action Bellatrix convince three friends that there is another Horcrux is hidden in the Lestrange vault. With the help of Griphook, they entered Gringotts and managed to get another Horcrux, Helga Hufflepuff Cup. Griphook steal Gryffindor's sword, because it assumes that the sword is actually owned by the Goblin, and three friends managed to run the Cup Horcrux. With this incident, Voldemort, who managed to steal the cane from the tomb of Dumbledore's Elder, fully aware that Harry Potter and his friends are looking for and destroy the Horcrux-Horcruxnya. By accident, Harry's mind is connected with Voldemort's mind that reveals that there is one more Horcrux hidden at Hogwarts. Harry soon realized that the Horcrux at Hogwarts is Crown Rowena Ravenclaw.

[edit] Battle of Hogwarts

In Hogsmeade, Aberforth Dumbledore to help Harry, Ron, and Hermione to sneak into Hogwarts. He warned the faculty of Hogwarts that Voldemort is coming attack. Order of the Phoenix, Laskar Dombledore, students, and many alumni of Hogwarts arrived there when the followers of Voldemort's attack arrived. This battle takes a lot of casualties, among them are Fred Weasley, Remus Lupine, Nymphadora Tonks, and Colin Creevey. While Harry's search for Crown Horcrux, Ron and Hermione enter the Chamber of Secrets to retrieve Basilisk fangs of snakes that used to be killed by Harry. [Hp2] Hermione use the fangs to destroy the Horcrux was Hufflepuff Cup. In that quest, Harry then remembered that he had seen it in the Crown Room of Requirement. In the room, the three were attacked by Malfoy, Crabbe and Goyle. Crabbe use spell Fiendfyre powerful instead, killing himself and destroying the crown.

Harry's mind is connected with Voldemort's mind again, and all three soon went to the Shrieking Shack. They heard that Voldemort told Snape Sticks Elder can not use properly because Snape has become the master of the cane after Snape killed the owner of the stick before, Albus Dumbledore. [HP6] Voldemort convinced that Snape killing the cane would be his completely. He ordered Nagini to kill Snape, and then go to Hogwarts. When Snape was in dying, he gives Harry his memory. This memory is later revealed that Snape, although not completely well, was loyal to Dumbledore, motivated by love of his life to Harry's mother, Lily Potter. Dumbledore, whose life was soon hit by a curse from Gaunt's ring Horcrux, had ordered Snape to kill Dumbledore if necessary, to protect the role of Snape in Order of the Phoenix, and also to replace the assigned Draco Malfoy Voldemort to kill his principal. Snape is also sending a female deer Patronus leads Harry to Gryffindor's sword. Memory was also revealed that Harry himself is a Horcrux - Voldemort is not going to be killed during Harry's still alive.

Resigned to his fate, Harry went alone to the Forbidden Forest where Voldemort was waiting. In that journey, Harry found the clue of the Snitch, which opened and inside Resurrection Stone. Harry summoned the spirits of his parents, Sirius Black and Remus Lupine, a soothing and accompanied him to Voldemort. He then let Voldemort's curse, Avada Kedavra, about him. Harry woke up in a place like in another world and was not sure whether he is alive or dead. Albus Dumbledore appears and explains that part of Voldemort's soul residing within Harry has been destroyed by the curse of the killer. He explained also that just as Voldemort can not be killed while the remaining part of his soul, then Harry can not be killed while his blood still runs in Voldemort's body. Harry, who had "conquered death" by uniting the three Deathly Hallows, have the option to "leave the world" or returned to live in the world.

Harry alive again, but he pretended he was dead. Voldemort told Hagrid to bring Harry to Hogwarts as a sign of victory. As the battle heats up again, putting Harry's invisibility cloak himself. Neville pulled the sword of Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat and managed to cut off the head of Nagini, destroying the last Horcrux. Hogsmeade village residents, the Centaur from the forest, and the Hogwarts house-elves to come in the battle against the Death Eaters, who began to turn losing superior in number. Inside the castle, McGonagall, Kingsley, and Slughorn duel against Voldemort; while Ginny, Hermione, and Luna against Bellatrix Lestrange. When a curse on the murderer almost Ginny, Molly Weasley went into battle, pushing the girls away, and with a fierce battle with Bellatrix. He managed to kill Bellatrix with charms. Harry revealed himself again, and defied Voldemort. Harry managed to conclude that Voldemort is not the true owner of Sticks Elder. When Draco Malfoy disarmed Dumbledore on the Astronomy Tower, Draco unknowingly became the owner of Sticks Elder; and when Harry later took Draco wand, he himself becomes the new owner of Sticks Elder true. Killer Curse Voldemort threw at Harry Harry resisted the disarmament Spells; but Rod Elder protect his master, so Voldemort's curse bounces and turns kill Voldemort himself.

After the battle ended, Harry went to Dumbledore's portrait. He told that he will keep the Invisibility Cloak, but to prevent the three Deathly Hallows were reunited, the Resurrection Stone will be left where he fell in the Forbidden Forest, and Rod Elder will be returned to the tomb of Dumbledore. When Harry later dies undefeated, then the power turns off Rod Elder along with his death. Painting Dumbledore nodded his approval. Before placing Sticks Elder returned to the tomb, Harry use it to improve his own wand which has been broken.

[edit] Epilogue

Nineteen years later, Harry has been married to Ginny Weasley, and they have three children named James Sirius, Albus Severus, and Lily Luna. Ron and Hermione are also married and has two children, Rose and Hugo. Families were met at King's Cross Station, where Albus will enter his first year at Hogwarts school. James, their first child, was in school at Hogwarts, while Lily was about to go to Hogwarts two years later.

Harry's godson nineteen years old, Teddy Lupine, is found kissing Victoire Weasley (Bill and Fleur's daughter) in one compartment of the train. Teddy seems very close to the Potters, with Harry saying, "He's coming to dinner four times a week."

Harry also sees Draco Malfoy and his wife with their son, Scorpius. Malfoy nodded his head briefly to Harry, then leave.

Harry calm Albus, who feared going into Slytherin. He told him that Severus Snape, Severus from which the name was taken, was a Slytherin and he was the bravest man who ever met. Harry was also leaked that the Sorting Hat will follow the choices a person.

Neville Longbottom has become Herbologi teachers and good friends with Harry.

The book concludes with the revelation that Harry's scar never hurt again for nineteen years since the Prince of Darkness was defeated, and everything went well.
Ends here.


[edit] Comments and supplements from Rowling

In an interview [8] and online chat, [9] [10] [11] Rowling gave additional information about the future of the main character is not so written in the epilogue. He stated:

* Harry becomes an Auror at the Ministry of Magic and was then appointed head of department. He still kept Sirius's motorcycle which was repaired by Arthur Weasley, but he was no longer able to speak Parseltongue after the destruction of Voldemort's soul that is in him.
* Ginny Weasley Quidditch team to play for England and Ireland, Holyhead Harpies for a while, and then became a journalist head to the Quidditch in the Daily Prophet.
* Ron worked for some time with George at his store, Weasleys' Wizard Wheezes, and later followed Harry into Auror.
* Hermione met his parents in Australia and attract Spells Change Memory wearing them. He initially worked in the Ministry of Magic in the Department for the Regulation and Control of Magical Creatures, greatly improving the life of the house-elves and the like creatures. He later moved to the Department of Magical Law Enforcement and helped abolish the law is very pro-pureblood.
* Rowling explained that Albus Dumbledore is a gay oriented but suffered unrequited love with Gellert Grindelwald. [12]

Rowling also told about the future of the other characters:

* George Weasley's joke shop run a very successful, with the assistance of Ron at first. George named his first child Fred, following the twin who had died.
* Luna Lovegood traveled to various places in the world to find the creatures strange and unique. She eventually married Rolf, a grandson of a famous naturalist, Newt Scamander, author of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. [11] his father's magic magazine, The Quibbler, has returned to the usual conditions which "includes the news strange "and appreciated for unintentional humor.
* Florence accepted back into the herd, who finally admitted that the tendency of pro-human is not something shameful but respectable.
* Dolores Umbridge was arrested, interrogated, and imprisoned for crimes against Muggle-born witches.
* Cho Chang to marry a Muggle. [13]
* Neville Longbottom married to Hannah Abbott. [14]

Major changes in the wizarding world wide:

* Kingsley Shacklebolt became the Minister of Magic, with Percy Weasley who worked under him as a high official. One of the reforms made by Shacklebolt, Azkaban no longer use the Dementors as guards. The result, the world becomes "a brighter place".
* Harry, Ron, and Hermione have also been color changes according to the Ministry of their ability each.
* At Hogwarts, Slytherin House became more clear and no longer a pure-blood faction as ever before. However, there remain dark reputation.
* The curse of Voldemort over the position of Defense Against the Dark Arts also disappeared after his death, so now there is a permanent teacher of Defense.
* Painting Snape, who briefly served as Hogwarts Headmaster after Dumbledore's death, does not appear on the wall of the principal's office because he left his post. Harry tried to lobby for painting Snape added there, and reveal to all the people will actually Snape's loyalty.

novrl harry potter

Harry Potter merupakan salah satu seri novel fantasi karya J. K. Rowling dari Inggris mengenai seorang anak laki-laki bernama Harry Potter. Sejak rilis pertama novel ini, Harry Potter dan Batu Bertuah pada tahun 1997 di Inggris, buku ini telah mendapatkan ketenaran dan kesuksesan secara komersial di seluruh dunia, diangkat menjadi film, video game, dan beragam merchandise.
Latar belakang kisah ini kebanyakan berada di Sekolah Sihir Hogwarts dan berpusat pada pertarungan Harry Potter melawan penyihir jahat Lord Voldemort, yang menggunakan Ilmu Hitam untuk membunuh orangtua Harry.
Kesemua tujuh buku yang direncanakan Rowling dalam seri novel ini telah diterbitkan. Buku keenam, Harry Potter dan Pangeran Berdarah-Campuran versi asli bahasa Inggris diterbitkan pada 16 Juli 2005, sementara buku ketujuh, Harry Potter dan Relikui Kematian diluncurkan di seluruh dunia pada 21 Juli 2007 (versi terjemahan bahasa Indonesia diterbitkan pada tanggal 13 Januari 2008). Enam buku pertama dalam seri novel ini secara keseluruhan telah terjual lebih dari 325 juta kopi, dan telah diterjemahkan ke lebih dari 63 bahasa.[1][2]
Atas kesuksesan novel-novelnya ini, Rowling telah menjadi penulis terkaya sepanjang sejarah kesusasteraan.[3] Versi-versi asli dalam bahasa Inggris diterbitkan oleh penerbit Bloomsbury di Inggris Raya, Scholastic Press di Amerika Serikat, Allen & Unwin di Australia, dan Raincoast Books di Kanada. Versi bahasa Indonesia diterbitkan oleh Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Lima buku pertama telah diangkat menjadi film layar lebar oleh Warner Bros. dan mendulang kesuksesan besar. Film kelima, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, mulai diambil gambarnya pada Februari 2006, dan dirilis pada 11 Juli 2007 di Amerika Serikat. Film keenam, Harry Potter and Half Blood Prince, dirilis pada 15 Juli 2009.[4]
Daftar isi[sembunyikan]
1 Tentang penciptaan Harry Potter
2 Kisah
2.1 Ringkasan plot
2.2 Dunia Harry Potter
2.3 Hal-hal yang berulang
2.4 Karakter
2.5 Struktur dan genre
2.6 Tema dan motif
3 Kritik dan pujian
4 Kontroversi
4.1 Publikasi Buku The Half-Blood Prince sebelum tanggal peluncuran
4.2 Kontroversi Lingkungan Hidup
5 Film-film
6 Penghargaan
7 Kesuksesan komersial
8 Pengaruh terhadap kebudayaan
8.1 Pengaruh terhadap kebudayaan pop
9 Kelanjutan
10 Seri-seri Harry Potter
11 Buku terkait
12 Lihat pula
13 Referensi
14 Pranala luar
15 Seri Harry Potter
//

[sunting] Tentang penciptaan Harry Potter

perangko harry potter
Ide tentang Harry Potter pertama kali tercetus dalam pikiran J. K. Rowling ketika menaiki kereta api dari Manchester ke London pada tahun 1990. Pada waktu itu, dia baru saja bercerai dan mengambil inisiatif untuk menjadikan Harry Potter sebagai inspirasi hidupnya. Dia menghabiskan waktu di dalam perjalanannya itu dengan memikirkan plot yang lengkap tentang ceritanya itu. Di situs webnya, Rowling menceritakan pengalamannya itu:

Saya telah menulis hampir tanpa jeda sejak umur enam tapi sebelumnya saya tidak pernah merasa begitu bergairah akan suatu gagasan. Saya hanya duduk dan berpikir, selama empat jam (menunggu keterlambatan kereta api), dan semua detel bermunculan di otak saya, dan anak laki-laki ceking berambut hitam dan berkaca mata yang tidak menyadari bahwa ia adalah seorang penyihir menjadi semakin lama semakin nyata bagi saya.

Pada tahun 1995, buku pertama berjudul Harry Potter and Philosopher's Stone (diterjemahkan dalam bahasa Indonesia sebagai Harry Potter dan Batu Bertuah) selesai dibuat dan naskahnya dikirimkan ke beberapa agen. Agen kedua yang dicobanya, Christopher Little, menawari untuk mewakilinya dan mengirimkan naskah itu ke Bloomsbury. Setelah delapan penerbit lainnya menolak Philosopher's Stone, Bloomsbury menawarkan uang muka £3.000 untuk menerbitkannya.[5]
Walaupun Rowling menyatakan bahwa ia tidak memiliki target khusus mengenai umur pembacanya ketika ia mulai menulis buku-buku Harry Potter, penerbitnya pada permulaannya telah menetapkan target pembacanya antara umur sembilan hingga sebelas.[6] Pada malam sebelum penerbitan, Joanne Rowling diminta oleh penerbitnya untuk menggunakan nama samaran yang lebih netral-jender, supaya dapat menarik anak laki-laki dalam jangkauan umur tersebut, karena mereka khawatir bahwa anak laki-laki tidak akan tertarik membaca novel yang mereka ketahui ditulis oleh seorang wanita. Ia memilih untuk menggunakan nama J. K. Rowling (Joanne Kathleen Rowling), mengambil nama neneknya sebagai nama keduanya, karena ia tidak memiliki nama tengah.[7]
Buku pertama Harry Potter diterbitkan di Britania Raya oleh Bloomsbury pada Juli 1997. Di Amerika Serikat buku ini diterbitkan oleh Scholastic pada September 1998, di mana Rowling menerima $105.000 untuk hak penerbitan Amerika Serikat — sebuah nilai yang tidak biasa bagi sebuah buku anak-anak yang dikarang oleh pengarang yang tidak dikenal (pada saat itu).[8] Khawatir bahwa para pembaca di Amerika tidak mengerti kata "philosoper" atau tidak menganggapnya sebagai tema magis (karena "Philosoper's Stone" atau batu filsuf adalah kata dalam bidang alkimia), Scholastic bersikeras untuk mengganti nama buku itu menjadi Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone untuk pasar Amerika.
Selama hampir satu dasawarsa, Harry Potter telah mengalami kesuksesan besar, tidak hanya karena resensi yang positif dan strategi pemasaran penerbit Rowling, tetapi juga karena pembicaraan dari mulut ke mulut di antara para penggemarnya, terutama di antara para remaja laki-laki. Kalangan remaja laki-laki ini menjadi penting, karena selama bertahun-tahun kalangan ini semakin tidak tertarik dengan bacaan yang dianggap ketinggalan zaman ketimbang video game dan internet. Penerbit Rowling berhasil menangkap kegairahan di kalangan remaja laki-laki ini dan segera merilis keempat buku pertama berturut-turut secara cepat, sehingga kegairahan mereka tidak sempat meredup ketika Rowling bermaksud untuk istirahat menulis di antara rilis Harry Potter dan Piala Api dan Harry Potter dan Orde Phoenix, dan dengan segera terbentuklah grup pembaca yang loyal.[9] Seri ini juga mendapatkan para penggemar dewasa, dengan diterbitkannya dua edisi untuk setiap buku Harry Potter (di Kanada dan Britania Raya, tapi tidak di Amerika Serikat). Keduanya memiliki naskah yang sama persis, tetapi dengan sampul yang berbeda, untuk masing-masing edisi anak-anak dan dewasa.[10]

[sunting] Kisah
Perhatian: Bagian di bawah ini mungkin akan membeberkan isi cerita yang penting atau akhir kisahnya.

[sunting] Ringkasan plot
Untuk sinopsis per novel, lihat artikel yang relevan di masing-masing seri.
Kisah dibuka dengan perayaan tak terkendali di dunia sihir (yang biasanya merupakan komunitas yang rahasia) setelah bertahun-tahun mengalami teror oleh Lord Voldemort. Pada malam sebelumnya, Voldemort telah menemukan tempat perlindungan rahasia keluarga Potter, dan membunuh James dan Lily Potter. Namun demikian, ketika ia mengarahkan tongkat sihirnya kepada bayi mereka, Harry, kutukan pembunuh yang dikeluarkannya malah membalik kepada dirinya sendiri. Arwah Voldemort tercabik dari tubuhnya sendiri yang hancur, menghilang dari dunia sihir, tapi tidak mati. Sementara itu, satu-satunya hasil dari kutukan yang gagal itu meninggalkan bekas yang khusus di dahinya, cacat berbentuk sambaran kilat. Kekalahan misterius Voldemort memberikan Harry sebutan khusus di kalangan dunia sihir, "Anak Laki-Laki yang Bertahan Hidup". Sebutan ini khususnya dikarenakan tidak ada penyihir yang diarah oleh Voldemort dapat bertahan hidup melawannya.
Pada malam berikutnya, seorang penyihir membawa Harry ke rumah Bibi dan Pamannya, Dursley, tempat di mana ia akan tinggal bertahun-tahun setelahnya. Keluarga Dursley adalah famili Harry yang kejam dan merupakan orang-orang non-penyihir. Mereka senantiasa berusaha menyembunyikan latar belakang Harry yang merupakan penyihir dan keturunan penyihir, dan memberinya hukuman jika terjadi kejadian-kejadian aneh.
Pada ulang tahunnya yang kesebelas, Harry mendapatkan kontak pertamanya dengan dunia sihir, ketika ia menerima surat dari Sekolah Sihir Hogwarts, yang berusaha disembunyikan oleh Paman dan Bibinya, hingga ia tidak berhasil membaca surat tersebut. Surat itu pada akhirnya dapat dibacanya setelah ia ditemui oleh Hagrid, Pengawas Binatang Liar di Hogwarts. Hagrid memberitahunya bahwa ia sesungguhnya adalah seorang penyihir, dan surat itu memberitahunya bahwa ia disediakan tempat untuk belajar di Hogwarts. Setiap jilid dari novel Harry Potter mengisahkan mengenai satu tahun kehidupan Harry, yang kebanyakan dihabiskannya dalam pelajaran di Hogwarts, di mana ia mempelajari penggunaan sihir dan membuat ramuan. Harry juga mempelajari bagaimana mengatasi rintangan-rintangan sihir, sosial, dan emosi selama masa remajanya. Dalam periode yang sama, Voldemort juga berusaha untuk kembali ke tubuh fisiknya dan mengembalikan seluruh kekuatannya, sementara Kementrian Sihir berusaha juga untuk menolak untuk mengakui adanya ancaman akan kembalinya Voldemort. Penolakan Kementerian Sihir ini kemudian menyebabkan banyak kesulitan bagi Harry Potter.

[sunting] Dunia Harry Potter
Dunia sihir dalam kisah Harry Potter adalah dunia yang ada di dunia kita sekarang tapi juga sekaligus terpisah sama sekali secara sihir. Kalau diperbandingkan, dalam kisah fantasi Narnia dunia sihirnya merupakan dunia alternatif, sementara dalam Lord of the Rings Bumi-Tengah merupakan dunia mite pada masa lampau. Lingkungan sihir Harry Potter dikisahkan berada di tengah-tengah dunia kita saat ini, dengan benda-benda sihir yang mirip dengan benda-benda di lingkup non-sihir. Lembaga-lembaga dan lokasi-lokasinya pun mirip atau malah sama dengan yang berada di dunia nyata, seperti London. Lingkungan sihir sama sekali tidak dapat terlihat oleh populasi non-sihir (atau Muggle, misalnya: Keluarga Dursley).
Bakat sihir adalah kemampuan alami yang telah ada sejak lahir, tidak dapat muncul karena dipelajari. Mereka yang memiliki bakat sihir harus mengikuti pelajaran di sekolah-sekolah seperti Hogwarts untuk dapat menguasai dan mengontrolnya. Namun demikian, ada kemungkinan anak-anak yang lahir di keluarga penyihir yang hanya memiliki sedikit bakat sihir atau malah tidak ada sama sekali (disebut "Squibs", misalnya Mrs. Figg, Argus Filch). Para penyihir belum tentu dilahirkan dalam keluarga penyihir, dan banyak dari mereka yang dilahirkan dari orang tua (para Muggle) yang sama sekali tidak mengenal sihir. Mereka yang murni berdarah penyihir seringkali tidak terbiasa dengan dunia Muggle, malah terasa lebih aneh bagi mereka ketimbang kita memandang dunia mereka. Namun demikian, dunia sihir dan elemen-elemennya yang menakjubkan itu digambarkan sebagai dunia-yang-sangat-mirip-dengan-dunia-nyata. Salah satu tema utama dalam novel ini adalah keberadaan dunia sihir dan dunia biasa; di mana para tokohnya hidup dalam lingkungan yang memiliki masalah-masalah yang "normal", sekalipun mereka hidup di antara sihir.

[sunting] Hal-hal yang berulang
Kemurnian darah (Harry Potter):
Para penyihir pada umumnya memandang Muggle dengan sikap merendahkan dan curiga, masalahnya, sikap ini menjadi kefanatikan bagi sebagian kecil penyihir. Mereka yang fanatik ini mengkotak-kotakkan diri mereka atas dasar banyaknya leluhur mereka, di mana penyihir "berdarah-murni" (mereka yang keluarganya seluruhnya adalah penyihir) dianggap sebagai yang paling tinggi, penyihir "berdarah-campuran" (mereka yang memiliki keturunan penyihir dan Muggle) pada tingkat menengah, dan "kelahiran-Muggle" (mereka yang tanpa keturunan penyihir) sebagai yang terendah. Para pendukung kemurnian-darah percaya bahwa hanya mereka yang "berdarah-murni"-lah yang berhak mengontrol dunia sihir, dan tidak menganggap bahwa penyihir "kelahiran-Muggle" sebagai penyihir yang sesungguhnya. Beberapa dari mereka bahkan bertindak terlalu jauh dengan membunuhi para "kelahiran-Muggle" supaya jangan dapat mempelajari sihir. Kebanyakan kaum fanatik ini adalah berdarah-murni, sekalipun perlu dicatat bahwa Voldemort, yang mendukung fanatisme ini, sesungguhnya adalah penyihir berdarah-campuran. Selain itu, sebenarnya hanya tinggal sedikit sekali penyihir yang benar-benar berdarah-murni, oleh karena tanpa menikah dengan populasi Muggle, para penyihir lama kelamaan akan habis. Namun demikian, banyak keluarga penyihir yang menutupi bahwa ada di antara keluarga mereka yang menikahi kaum Muggle. Salah satu contoh keluarga seperti ini adalah dalam keluarga Black.[HP5]
Burung hantu
Asrama
Quidditch

[sunting] Karakter
Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Daftar tokoh dalam seri Harry Potter

[sunting] Struktur dan genre

[sunting] Tema dan motif

[sunting] Kritik dan pujian

[sunting] Kontroversi

[sunting] Publikasi Buku The Half-Blood Prince sebelum tanggal peluncuran
Publikasi besar-besaran Half-Blood Prince diwarnai dengan kontroversi yang tak terelakkan dan tidak terduga sebelumnya. Pada Mei 2005, para petaruh di Inggris menangguhkan taruhan mengenai tokoh utama mana yang akan tewas dalam buku tersebut karena kekhawatiran akan adanya petaruh dengan pengetahuan orang-dalam. Sejumlah taruhan besar dibuat untuk kematian Albus Dumbledore, kebanyakan berasal dari Bungay, Suffolk, tempat di mana buku-buku tersebut dicetak. Pertaruhan kemudian dibuka kembali. Kontroversi lainnya termasuk "hak membaca" buku-buku Potter yang tidak sengaja terjual sebelum tanggal peluncurannya, masalah lingkungan mengenai sumber dari kertas yang dipergunakna untuk mencetak jutaan buku tersebut, dan reaksi penggemar terhadap perkembangan plot dan pengungkapan dalam novel tersebut.
Pada awal Juli 2005, Real Canadian Superstore, sebuah toko retail besar di Coquitlam, British Columbia, Kanada, secara tidak sengaja menjual empat belas buku The Half-Blood Prince sebelum tanggal peluncuran yang resmi. Penerbit Kanada, Raincoast Books, mendapatkan perintah keras dari Mahkamah Agung British Columbia untuk melarang pembelinya membaca buku-buku tersebut sebelum tanggal rilis resmi dan melarang mereka untuk membicarakan isinya.
Para pembeli tersebut ditawari sebuah kaus Harry Potter dan buku yang telah ditandatangani penulisnya jika mereka mengembalikan buku-buku itu sebelum 16 Juli 2005.
Pada 15 Juli 2005, kurang dari 12 jam sebelum buku ini resmi diluncurkan, Raincoast memperingatkan koran The Globe and Mail yang mempublikasikan sebuah resensi dari seorang penulis Kanada pada tengah malam, sebagaimana dijanjikan koran tersebut, sebagai pelanggaran atas perintah pengadilan akan kerahasiaan perdagangan. Perintah pengadilan ini dengan segera menjadi berita di berbagai artikel berita yang menyatakan bahwa perintah itu telah melanggar hak-hak asasi. Seorang guru besar hukum Kanada, Michael Geist mengomentari masalah ini dalam weblognya.[rujukan?] Richard Stallman, seorang aktivis lingkungan dan pendiri GPL menyerukan pemboikotan, dan meminta penerbitnya untuk meminta maaf. The Globe and Mail mempublikasikan resensi dari dua orang penulis dari Inggris pada edisi 16 Juli, dan mempublikasikan resensi dari penulis asal Kanada tadi pada situs web mereka pada pukul 9 pagi. Penjelasan juga tersedia di situs web Raincoast.
Selain kontroversi tersebut di atas, pada minggu yang sama, sebuah toko swalayan Chicago, Walgreens, secara tidak sengaja[rujukan?] juga menjual sebuah buku tersebut. Ketika si pembeli membaca mengenai insiden di Kanada di Internet, pembeli ini menyatakan bahwa ia tidak akan mengembalikan buku tersebut, tapi ia tidak akan membaca novel tersebut hingga tanggal rilis Amerika Serikat.

Rabu, 02 September 2009

the owl and the Nightingale

There was once a nightingale in a cage by a window,that was his habit to sing only at night. An owl was puzzled by this and went to ask the nightingale what the reason was. ''When I was captured ,''explained the nightingale ,''it was day and I was singing. In this way I learnt to be more carefully and to sing only at night''.
''Are you afraid you might be captured a second time?'' asked the owl. ''Oh,it would have been better if you had been a more careful the first time when your freedom was at risk. Now it does'nt really matter any more, right?''

Selasa, 11 Agustus 2009

my friends:

Syafira ulfah
Yora moriska
Nadya delana
Nurul damayanti
Rizkytia intan
Novi rachmawati

Kamis, 07 Mei 2009

Herman Willem Daendels

Herman Willem Daendels

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Herman Willem Daendels

Herman Willem Daendels (Hattem (Netherlands), October 21, 1762St. George d'Elmina (Dutch Gold Coast, now Ghana), May 2, 1818) was a Dutch politician who served as the 36th Governor General of the Dutch East Indies between 1808 - 1811.[1]

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Early life

Born in Hattem, Netherlands, on the 21 October 1762, he was the son of Burchard Johan Daendels, the mayoral secretary, and Josina Christina Tulleken. He studied law at the University of Harderwijk, acquiring his doctorate on 10 April 1783.

[edit] Political Activity

In 1785, he sided with the Patriots, who had seized power in several Dutch cities. In 1786 he defended the city of Hattem against stadholderian troops. In 1787, he defended Amsterdam against the Prussian army that invaded the Netherlands to restore William V of Orange. After William V was in power again, he fled to France because of a death penalty. Daendels was close witness to the French revolution.

He returned to the Netherlands in 1794, as a general in the French revolutionary army of general Charles Pichegru and commander of the Batavian Legion. Daendels helped unitarian politician Pieter Vreede to power in a coup d'état on 25 January 1798. The group behind Vreede was dissatisfied with the conservative-moderate majority in parliament, which tried to prevent the formulation of a more democratic, centralistic constitution. The reign of Vreede did not bring the expected results, however, and Daendels supported another coup d'état against Vreede on 14 June 1798. In the Batavian Republic Daendels occupied several political offices, but he had to step down when he failed to prevent the Anglo-Russian Invasion of Holland in 1799, and became a farmer in Heerde, Gelderland.

[edit] Military and colonial career

[edit] Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies

Java Great Post Road, commissioned by Daendels.

Louis Bonaparte made him colonel-general in 1806 and Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies in 1807. After a long voyage, he arrived in the city of Batavia (now Jakarta) on the 5 January 1808 and relieved the former Governor General, Albertus Wiese. His primary task was to rid the island of Java of the English Army, which he promptly achieved. He built new hospitals and military barracks, a new arms factories in Surabaya and Semarang, and a new military college in Batavia. He demolished the Castle in Batavia and replaced it with a new fort at Meester Cornelis (Jatinegara), and built Fort Lodewijk in Surabaya. However, his best-known achievement was the construction of the Great Post Road (Indonesian: Jalan Raya Pos) across northern Java. The road now serve as the main road in Java island, called Jalur Pantura. The thousand-kilometre road was completed in only one year, during which thousands of Javanese forced labourers died.[2]

He displayed a firm attitude towards the Javanese rulers, with the result that the rulers were willing to work with the English against the Dutch. He also subjected the population of Java to forced labour (Rodi). There were some rebellious actions towards this action, such as in Cadas Pangeran, West Java.

There is considerable debate as to whether he increased the efficiency of the local bureaucracy and reduced corruption, although he certainly enriched himself during this period.

[edit] General in Napoleon's Grande Armée

When the Kingdom of Holland was incorporated into France in 1810, Daendels returned to Holland. He was appointed a Divisional General (Major General) and commanded the 26th Division of the Grande Armée in Napoleon's invasion of Russia.

[edit] Governor-General of the Dutch Gold Coast

After the fall of Napoleon, king Willem I and the new Dutch government feared that Daendels could become an influential and powerful opposition leader and effectively banned him from the Netherlands by appointing him Governor-General of the Dutch Gold Coast, now Ghana. In the aftermath of the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade, Daendels tried to redevelop the rather dillapidated Dutch possessions as an African plantation colony driven by legitimate trade. Drawing on his experience from the East Indies, he came up with some very ambitious infrastructural projects, including a comprehensive road system, with a main road connecting Elmina and Kumasi in Ashanti. The Dutch government gave him a free hand and a substantial budget to implement his plans. At the same time, however, Daendels regarded his governorship as an opportunity to establish a private business monopoly in the Dutch Gold Coast.

Eventually none of the plans came to fruition, as Daendels died of malaria in the castle of St. George d'Elmina, the Dutch seat of government, on 8 May 1818. His body was interred in the central tomb at the Dutch cemetery in Elmina town. He had been in the country less than two

Herman Willem Daendels (Hattem (Netherlands), October 21, 1762St. George d'Elmina (Dutch Gold Coast, now Ghana), May 2, 1818) was a Dutch politician who served as the 36th Governor General of the Dutch East Indies between 1808 - 1811.[1]

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Early life

Born in Hattem, Netherlands, on the 21 October 1762, he was the son of Burchard Johan Daendels, the mayoral secretary, and Josina Christina Tulleken. He studied law at the University of Harderwijk, acquiring his doctorate on 10 April 1783.

[edit] Political Activity

In 1785, he sided with the Patriots, who had seized power in several Dutch cities. In 1786 he defended the city of Hattem against stadholderian troops. In 1787, he defended Amsterdam against the Prussian army that invaded the Netherlands to restore William V of Orange. After William V was in power again, he fled to France because of a death penalty. Daendels was close witness to the French revolution.

He returned to the Netherlands in 1794, as a general in the French revolutionary army of general Charles Pichegru and commander of the Batavian Legion. Daendels helped unitarian politician Pieter Vreede to power in a coup d'état on 25 January 1798. The group behind Vreede was dissatisfied with the conservative-moderate majority in parliament, which tried to prevent the formulation of a more democratic, centralistic constitution. The reign of Vreede did not bring the expected results, however, and Daendels supported another coup d'état against Vreede on 14 June 1798. In the Batavian Republic Daendels occupied several political offices, but he had to step down when he failed to prevent the Anglo-Russian Invasion of Holland in 1799, and became a farmer in Heerde, Gelderland.

[edit] Military and colonial career

[edit] Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies

Java Great Post Road, commissioned by Daendels.

Louis Bonaparte made him colonel-general in 1806 and Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies in 1807. After a long voyage, he arrived in the city of Batavia (now Jakarta) on the 5 January 1808 and relieved the former Governor General, Albertus Wiese. His primary task was to rid the island of Java of the English Army, which he promptly achieved. He built new hospitals and military barracks, a new arms factories in Surabaya and Semarang, and a new military college in Batavia. He demolished the Castle in Batavia and replaced it with a new fort at Meester Cornelis (Jatinegara), and built Fort Lodewijk in Surabaya. However, his best-known achievement was the construction of the Great Post Road (Indonesian: Jalan Raya Pos) across northern Java. The road now serve as the main road in Java island, called Jalur Pantura. The thousand-kilometre road was completed in only one year, during which thousands of Javanese forced labourers died.[2]

He displayed a firm attitude towards the Javanese rulers, with the result that the rulers were willing to work with the English against the Dutch. He also subjected the population of Java to forced labour (Rodi). There were some rebellious actions towards this action, such as in Cadas Pangeran, West Java.

There is considerable debate as to whether he increased the efficiency of the local bureaucracy and reduced corruption, although he certainly enriched himself during this period.

[edit] General in Napoleon's Grande Armée

When the Kingdom of Holland was incorporated into France in 1810, Daendels returned to Holland. He was appointed a Divisional General (Major General) and commanded the 26th Division of the Grande Armée in Napoleon's invasion of Russia.

[edit] Governor-General of the Dutch Gold Coast

After the fall of Napoleon, king Willem I and the new Dutch government feared that Daendels could become an influential and powerful opposition leader and effectively banned him from the Netherlands by appointing him Governor-General of the Dutch Gold Coast, now Ghana. In the aftermath of the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade, Daendels tried to redevelop the rather dillapidated Dutch possessions as an African plantation colony driven by legitimate trade. Drawing on his experience from the East Indies, he came up with some very ambitious infrastructural projects, including a comprehensive road system, with a main road connecting Elmina and Kumasi in Ashanti. The Dutch government gave him a free hand and a substantial budget to implement his plans. At the same time, however, Daendels regarded his governorship as an opportunity to establish a private business monopoly in the Dutch Gold Coast.

Eventually none of the plans came to fruition, as Daendels died of malaria in the castle of St. George d'Elmina, the Dutch seat of government, on 8 May 1818. His body was interred in the central tomb at the Dutch cemetery in Elmina town. He had been in the country less than two